Adult literacy levels have stagnated or declined sharply across many countries in Europe and the World over the past decade, according to a new report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).

The study examines key skills such as reading, numeracy, and adaptive problem-solving, which are essential for effective participation in everyday life and the modern workforce.

Based on data from 31 OECD countries, literacy rates improved in only two nations: Finland and Denmark. In all other participating countries and economies, literacy either remained unchanged or deteriorated.

Numeracy results were somewhat more encouraging, with eight countries — led by Finland and Singapore — showing measurable gains.

Finland, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden stand out as top performers across all three skill areas. Finland and Japan consistently rank first and second, while Chile occupies the lowest position in the overall assessment.

On average, the report finds that 18% of adults in OECD countries fail to reach even the most basic proficiency levels in literacy, numeracy, or problem-solving.

Migration and literacy: almost identical

The study also explores the role of migration in shaping these trends. In countries such as Germany, Austria, Norway, New Zealand, and Sweden, average skill levels would have been about five points higher if immigration patterns and migrants’ relative skill levels had not changed over the past decade.

However, the OECD notes that migration explains only a limited portion of the overall decline.

Gender gaps have also shifted. In many countries, literacy levels have fallen more among men than women, resulting in women now outperforming men on average in reading skills.

Men, however, continue to score higher in numeracy — by about 10 points — and slightly higher in adaptive problem-solving.

Crucially, the report highlights the strong influence of family and socioeconomic background on skill development.

Differences between adults whose parents have low versus high educational attainment average around 50 points in literacy, nearly the same in numeracy, and over 40 points in problem-solving.

These disparities significantly hinder social and economic mobility across Europe and the world, underscoring the long-term consequences of unequal access to education and learning opportunities.